Aging Theory- Gerontology

Activity Theory means remaining occupied and involved on activities that are necessary to a satisfying late life. The meaning of this principle was that human mind comes to exist, develop and can only be understood within the context of meaningful, goal oriented and socially determined interaction between humans and the material environment.The basic concept of this theory is that all human activities are mediated by culturally created signs or tools. Through external interactions with these signs the internal mental state of the individual is transformed (Aboulafia, Gould, and Spyrou 1995).Activity Theory is not a theory in the strict interpretation of the term, it is consist of basic principles which constitutes a conceptual system in general that can be used as a foundation of more specific theories.These principles of Activity Theory includes object-orientedness, dual concept of internalizing and externalizing, meditations and continuous development.Whereas the object orientednes s states that as human beings, we should,live in a reality that is objective in a broad sense and the things that constitutes reality have not only the properties which are considered objective according to national science but socially/culturally defined properties as well.In this theory the high level motivating concept is activity. It is the general term that describes what the individual or group is trying to accomplish and typically indicates what outcome are they working out. A good case on this is activity like fishing.A fishing activity has actions that are performed on order to accomplish a specific goals and when that action is performed, the situation is assessed and later on determines if the goal is achieved. Actions also inludes operations and rules that requires the individual to act and think more in relation to the activity and the goalActivity Theory 2that they want. It includes figuring out where to fish, loading the fish to the car, baiting your hook, catching,cl eaning and driving home with the catch.The Activity Theory emphasizes on social factors and on interaction between agents and environment and the necessary tools in doing those actions.Tools shapes the way human being's interaction with reality. Tools are created and transformed during the activity development and this tools are used as a means of accumulation and transmission of social knowledge. It influences not only the environment but enhances the mental functioning of every individualWhat we can further analyze regarding this theory are the activities that will make adult busy and make them get into the process of maintaining an active lifestyle that will benefit them in attaining a satisfying late life. Continuity   of doing this activities makes adult develop their mind and body that will later on satisfy their life.I is important for older adults to be active in order to attain a satisfying late life because during these stages they need to be expose to activities that wi ll make them feel young and make their minds working so as to forget the illnesses that may occur due to the fact that they are getting old.Maintaining a healthy lifestyle and being engage in activities like fishing, mind sports and physical exercises makes an older adult feel young and the continuous mental function provides them more knowledge and more enjoyable time spent with love ones.ReferencesAboulafia, A., Gould, E., & Spyrou, T. (1995). Activity theory vs. cognitive science in the study of human-computer interaction . Proceedings of IRIS

Comprehensive Sex Education

Comprehensive Sex Education Speech 1. Intro a. Today, 13,000 teenagers lives will change. 10,000 of them will be infected with an STD, 2,400 will become pregnant, and 55 will contract HIV. Those are some pretty scary statistics. And yet the government is still spending $100 million a year on abstinence only sex ed programs instead of teaching kids about the emotional aspects of sex and how to do it safely if they choose to do so. "Just say no" didn't work for drugs, and it won't work for sex either.2. Body a. Some schools have started giving free condoms out to students to make it more likely that teens will use them. Buying condoms from a store could be a potentially embarrassing situation, especially if the student would have to show ID or if the condoms were kept in a glass case in the store. Either of these situations could discourage students from buying them, and they would have no other way to obtain one if their school didn't hand them out, so they probably wouldn't use one at all.Condom coutureHaving c ondoms at school eliminates this problem.b. Also, if kids are buying condoms with money out of their own pocket, they would probably get the least expensive brand, which are probably cheaply made and would break easily. The condoms that the school would give out would be free and of a higher quality.c. Some people think giving out condoms will tell teens it's okay to be sexually active and give them an excuse to have sex. That's a ridiculous argument. The nurse provides band-aids, and kids aren't just going to go cut themselves.d. But to get a condom at most schools that hand them out, you need a parent to sign a permission slip, and many parents refuse...

Discuss some of the benefits and drawbacks of studying for a Essay

Discuss some of the benefits and drawbacks of studying for a university degree which spear to be more persuasive Refer to the - Essay Example University education not only provides expert knowledge, but also it gives individuals the practical skills needed to handle situations in the world. Thus, each university scholar has the chance to widen their viewpoint and enrich their own knowledge. An additional factor that drives the inspiration for university education is that; there exists a direct correlation between the level of schooling and the sum of income to which one is entitled. The traditional roles of universities were that of teaching and researching. University research has aided in the development of theoretical knowledge and its subsequent application in the practical field. Positions in the traditional universities were only privy to a select few. These select few were largely the cream of the community. Thus, these elite of the community busied themselves with research, which was conducted by the best students and few professors. Thus, these individuals locked themselves in ivory towers and succumbed to the pas sions of knowledge. The net effect of this was the total loss of contact with the society. This meant that the overall performance of these traditional universities took a nose dive. Performance of universities is measured by the improvement of quality of lives of the people it serves. Thus, the needs of the society should be at the center of a university’s activities. ... Additionally, there is an increasing demand for university education. Costs for educating a person are steadily rising with universities struggling to keep up with increasing demand. Critiques cite the fact that anything taught at the university can also be self taught. They reason that it is not practical to spend copious amounts of money on universities so that one can gain knowledge, which is widely available from other sources (LOVETT et al, 2004, p. 18). Critiques also state that no one professor has the divine knowledge that is injected to students once they attend the various lessons. Each student is required to put in effort so as to increase their knowledge in the respective fields. This statement is true in some sense. However, I do disagree with this half baked thought. In all endeavors of life, one cannot be sure of succeeding without the advice and counsel of a mentor. The instructor’s job is to ensure that you do not make mistakes and explain concepts that are di fficult to understand (MCMAHON 1999, p. 34). Without this vital input, a lot of time and energy is going to be spent at the said endeavor whose results cannot be guaranteed. It is with this fact in mind that a lot of individuals absorb this enormous financial cost for education. The role of the professors is to accelerate the duration of training thus saving on valuable time. Additionally, they ensure that each student has properly grasped the basic concepts lest ill-equipped individuals flood the job market (BINGLEY et al 2005, p. 71). An unfortunate scenario is when the training a person has sacrificed a lot for actually deems him or her ineligible of job position. This arises in cases of over qualification. This is when an individual is

Analytical Measurements Should be Made to Satisfy an Agreed Essay

Analytical Measurements Should be Made to Satisfy an Agreed Requirement - Essay Example b.Prior to making a final judgement the results thus obtained from measurements should be compared to the existing standards already laid down to interpret the lower and upper limits. For example, in determining the level of alcohol in the blood of a driver charged with driving while drunk, there should be an existing standard level of alcohol in blood considered safe for driving and a limit above which it is unsafe to drive. The result obtained from the blood sample of this driver is then compared to the standard limit. (4, 10) c.A valid measurement is the one which does not result in misleading an observer, or the customer of a laboratory making the measurement. That is to say, that if the customer makes a decision relying on the information obtained by a valid measurement then the decision is correct. (4, 10) d.A valid measurement in itself may not be particularly accurate or precise, but if a conclusion is to be reached as to how the result differs from a standard then the measurement will have sufficient accuracy and precision to satisfy customer’s requirement. The correctness of a decision reached by relying on the information obtained through analytical measurement indicates the validity of measurement. (1, 4, 10) e.The aim of the agency making Valid Measurement, normally a laboratory, is to provide their customers with results that are not ambiguous and confusing and meet customer requirements. That is why Analytical Measurement should be made to satisfy an agreed requirement. (10) In analytical measurements the quality of data extracted is all that matters and good information thus gained is an outcome of good measuring techniques applied. For data to be of good quality the technique employed should be validated by being precise, repeatable, reproducible and stable. (8,9) g. A precise technique does not have deviations in the result of same measurement. There should be no change in methodology of measurement and neither should there be a change in what is being measured. The repeatable technique should render the same result when the same object is measured over a number of times. A reproducible technique is the one which when repeated produces the same result. A stable technique does not change over a period of time and if repeated, in times to come, it should be able to give same results as in the past. (2, 5) h. Laboratory of the Government Chemist (LGC) and National Physical Laboratory (NPL) have jointly developed Valid Analytical Measurement (VAM) principles, as part of their VAM programme to sketch a design for laboratories involved in making analytical measurements. Out of the six principles as laid down "Analytical measurements should be made to satisfy an agreed requirement" (4) is the first. (4) i. To realize the importance of agreed requirements consider that there a number of tests which can be performed to carry out a measurement. An analyst, being an expert, must enter into a dialogue with the customer to discuss the quality of results, time and cost of these tests. The analyst must have the knowledge to identify customer's requirements. Moreover, it is important to gain an insight into the criticality of the measurement by virtue of discussion with the customer. As such, it becomes necessary to know for what purpose the result will be used. (4, 5, 6) j. All critical and non-critical issues must be explained to the customer prior

Chinese literature paper 2 Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Chinese literature paper 2 - Essay Example eturn, there is an understanding of the accepted identity of the time frame, specifically as it relates to the cultural and social concepts that are a part of China. Questioning how identity is formed and how it relates to other aspects of the culture not only provides a story used through this time, but also shows a deeper meaning of the concepts associated with the lifestyle of this time frame. The Story of the Stone is known as a unique literary work because of the time frame it was written in. The story was written in the mid 18th century at the height of the Qing Dynasty. The story is also known to be based on the biography of the writer and his lifestyle during this time with regard to the memorial of those that are around him. The focus is on the women that Cao knows through his lifetime and the identity that they hold within his life and in society. This is specifically associated with the Qing Dynasty, which was known for changing the social and economic status into the present day. The dynasty was built on establishing a centralized system and reached the golden age of the emperors from the establishment. The social construction that is a part of this leads to contradictions of the past traditions as well as the movement into more contemporary establishments. The foundation of the social standing begins to change with specific aspects that are linked directly to th e movie and the social reform that was continuing to accommodate to society at this time (Rowe, 5 – 30). The Story of the Stone is one that is representative of the transitions of the Qing Dynasty and shows how the identity of the characters in the book reflects the transitions. The women that are in the book reflect both the traditions of the old dynasty as well as the newer and modern reforms that were a part of the social changes of the time. The stories and the autobiographical recounts of the author are able to display the lifestyle at the time, the sense of identity that is

Public Opinion and policy Essay Example for Free

Public Opinion and policy Essay In Public Opinion: Democratic Ideals, Democratic Practice, Rosalee Clawson and Zoe Oxley interpret public opinion as an individual’s beliefs and preferences in regards to all governmental matters and policies.(424) These individual ideas collectively are viewed as the overall populations opinions summarized and can be reflected by a poll. By collecting these opinions through the polling process, lawmakers are likely to take these opinions into consideration when creating and/or regulating a policy. In 1824 The Harrisburg Pennsylvanian newspaper conducted one such poll where the readers were asked to return a postcard with their opinion about the presidential candidates; Andrew Jackson or John Quincy Adams. Jackson won the poll as well as the eventual election.(Franklin) This style of opinion polling has increased over the years and evolved into a more refined and accurate representation of the public. For instance, instead of submitting an untraceable, anonymous postcard, people are instead asked to submit a survey and are required to submit some personal information, which will remain anonymous, in order to prevent the chance of someone submitting more than one survey. Due to the availability of the telephones and the internet, we are able to survey a larger and more diverse group of citizens which will allow for more accurate results. As voters, we are able to have some control over who represents our opinions as well as who we believe will make decisions that are truly for the betterment of the people and society. By understanding the five linkage models established by Norman Luttbeg (Robert Kent, 20-21) we are able to see how public opinion can sway the formulation of a public policy. 1. The Rational-Activist Model assumes that all voting citizens are level-headed, informed, involved and politically active individuals. This model presents the idea that if representatives do not make decisions to satisfy the demands of the people, then the people will replace that representative. This model is the least likely to be apparent since the majority of the public does not keep close tabs on political actions. The largest flaw with this model is that we are assuming all voters are educated and rational about a particular issue and/or candidate. 2. The Political Parties Model takes place when an individual has an overall agreement with the ideals of an individual party. Citizens identify with a party whose overall attitude and beliefs mesh with their own. A major flaw within this model is the idea that representatives feel  pressured to take actions that are for the betterment of the party but not always for the individual citizen. 3. The Interest Groups Model establishes that the public can express their opinions to lawmakers by forming a group who will advocate for a collective cause. The groups place pressure on the lawmakers and parties electorally by rallying behind those that will publicly promote them. As well as monetarily by donating funds to those individuals and/or parties. By understanding this particular model we are able to see the likelihood of one group being more represented than another in society. This would create strife among the people as the group who is the least wealthy would be more likely to be underrepresented even though that group could contain a more accurate representation of the overall public opinion. 4. The Delegate Model maintains that a representative is elected based on the candidates values but not necessarily their stance on the issues. This model varies from the Rational Activist model in that it places more responsibility on the candidate to follow the opinions of the constituency or face being replaced and not place the responsibility on the public to educate themselves. While the Delegate Model and the Rational Activist Model are very similar the key difference is in noting that this model places more pressure on a candidate to follow their constituency’s ideas even if the candidate believes that other options would be in the best interest of the constituents. 5. The Sharing Model speaks on the idea that a representative will act on their own belief that may not be in complete alignment with their constituency but due to the unlikelihood that the lawmaker will go directly against their constituency they are still placing public opinion in their favor. This model overwhelmingly displays that a representatives values and character may come more into consideration with a voter than that representatives stance on a particular issue. (WK 2008) When we say population we are referring to a large mass of people that represent the summation of a geographical area. (Robert Kent, 28) Population can be that of a country, state, city or even a university leading to extremely large groups of people that would take too much time to poll individually. Within any given population we take samples, collect data from a subdivision of a population in an effort to estimate the overall opinions of the collective group. Within these subsets of populations the results may not be a completely accurate reflection of the overall population. Religion,  race and income are factors that can greatly sway the outcome but most instances are unintentional. (US History) A biased sample is where there has been a methodical selection of the participants in an effort to achieve a planned outcome. An unintentional occurrence might take place with a telephone sampling. The University of Texas at Austin elaborated on this bias in regards to telephone sampling. For instance, if the amount of people who are without phones, or those who simply don’t answer the phone are not considered this can greatly skew the results. Truly random samplings are where the participants are participating solely due to chance and where every varying subset of citizens h as an equal chance to be selected. (Rosalee Zoe, 29-30) A sample will very rarely get the exact percentages as it is highly likely that they will miss a group of people since the entire population is not participating and we are taking smaller groups to represent the entirety. The confidence level is a mathematical probability measure that tells us how reliable our data is in terms of accuracy. We keep this probability to a manageable number by keeping the number of individuals polled low. Polls are kept to less than 1,000 respondents due to the margin of error as well as the fact that the accuracy improves only marginally with larger samples. (Robert Kent 30) The 1936 poll conducted by Literacy Digest proclaimed that the Republican candidate was likely to be the overwhelming winner of the Presidential election when in actuality it was Franklin Delano Roosevelt that won the bid for President. Seeing as how this poll was conducted at a time where the majority of people were dealing with the aftermath of the stock market crash and the subsequent great depression we can infer that the majority of the people polled were people who had the funds to subscribe to a weekly magazine, owned a telephone and possibly an automobile. The Republican candidate was projec ted to be the winner most likely due to the affluent Republican participants of the survey. During this same election George Gallup’s American Institute of Public Opinion did project the winner to be Franklin Delano Roosevelt, which placed the Gallup poll into the spotlight. It is believed that the Gallup poll was able to accurately predict the outcome due to their preference of using a smaller and more diverse sample. (Polling the Nations) Ideologies are the beliefs of an individual about the various social, cultural, political and economic operations within a society. An individual forms opinions based on their beliefs, life experience, genetics and many factors that as a whole make up their political ideology. (Rosalee Zoe, p62) The liberal ideology is based on the beliefs that government intervention in economic matters, as well as a basic belief in the equality of the people. While a conservatives ideology is based on the beliefs that there should be minimal government intervention in all matters, as well as an emphasis on tradition and individual responsibility. (Robert Kent, p72-73) There are five main influences that will affect how a person develops their ideology; family, gender, religion, ethnicity, and/or region. All of these influences will combine, influencing the opinions and beliefs of the citizen. Since a person develops opinions based on the experiences and knowledge they have developed over the course of their lives, there can be instances where a person can completely flip-flop on their original ideals as time progresses and while this is highly unlikely it is still possible.( Pelin, Erik, Jackie†¦) For instance, a person who grew up in an affluential conservative household may find as they get older and more independent that their view of the world is vastly different from that of their families. This can also lead to strife amongst families in instances where there is an obvious divide on the ideals. A person who is witness to the exchange of ideas between the opposing sides is likely to be influenced by the attitudes and opinions of the peop le while also comparing those individuals’ ideals to their behaviors, character, and reliability. Conservatives and Liberals have very different ideological standpoints and many Americans tend to lean towards one or the other in regards to their personal beliefs toward public policy making and governing styles. However, it has been discovered that the majority of the present American public do not identify themselves as adhering to one strict ideology but instead place themselves somewhere in the middle. (Robert Kent, p83) Conservatives have the highest percentage of individuals who are strict ideologues. (Gallup-a) But there are many individuals from either side that can be uncompromising  in their ideals and take their truth as the one and only truth. In understanding a person’s chosen ideology we are faced with an interesting fact; that while most people tend to identify themselves as conservative, the overall majority of the public tends to vote more liberally. (John, 2014) Conservatives are ideologically defined by their strict adherence to traditional values and practices as well as their support for little to no governmental regulation and their emphasis on individual citizens taking personal responsibility. Liberals are alternatively defined by their belief that the government should be active in the regulation of the people in order to protect the citizens from the possibility of unequal and discriminatory actions. (Rosalee Zoe, p134) Liberals are also recognized by their beliefs in the overall equality of citizens, protection of liberties and progressive thinking that is based on the idea that there is overall an essential goodness to the mass populous. While there are vast differences between these opposing sides, it is possible to see how a person may agree with a conservative view of government while simultaneously believing in the humanist attributes of the liberal view. Individuals will usually develop an allegiance to a particular party (typically Democrat or Republican, though many other political parties have emerged), or will categorize themselves as being an independent of a specific party affiliation. An individual’s party identification gives us a better idea on how that person will vote in elections as people tend to follow their elected party’s specific views on an issue as well as electorally support a political leader of the party, but that is not always the case. Party identification has been described as being a psychological identification, or being the way an individual has come to their current attitudes towards public policy by way of their individual life experience, that will continue to influence how new information is processed. (Thomas Geoffrey) If we were to question an individual’s likelihood to remain a steady voter for one particular party, the Michigan Model theory will give us such a theory to go on as this model emphasizes an individual’s party attachment is  predominately stable. One noticeable flaw in this theory is if a party were to change their stance on an issue that overwhelmingly goes against the beliefs or ideals of the individual, the voter may then vote against the party if not possibly switch parties altogether. But this is unlikely as the voter is more likely to respond to the performances of their elected representatives than to their ideologies alone. (Harold, David, Marianne Paul) By looking at the present day Republican Party we are able to see they are typically very conservative in their views, which may be why more and more religious people vote in accordance with this party. The Republican party favors towards older, affluent and white males while the Democratic party tends to be more diverse. The Democratic Party contains a very diverse group of people and is weighted in the areas of women, race and sexual orientation. (Gallup-b) The majority of younger Americans also identifies with the Democratic Party. By seeing the makeup of these parties we can deduce that it is likely the Democrats are representative of a â€Å"new school† wave that is pushing for a more liberalistic approach. (Adam, 2014) The presidential approval rating is one of the main political opinion polls taken and focused on by the media. This ranking shows whether the public generally approves or disapproves of the job performance of the person holding America’s highest office. In studying the inconsistent falls and climbs of the approval rating there have been certain trends believed to be the cause of some high points during a presidential term. (Rosalee Zoe, 109) The honeymoon effect is the first trend that will take place during the days after a President takes office. This effect refers to the initial phase after the swearing in of the president into the office. Since this man is entering office with a clean sheet, and has recently come off of an approval high as evidenced by his election, people are more likely to be optimistic towards actions taken by the president. Eventually there will come a time where a problem is encountered and the president’s plan of action will no doubtedly upse t a cluster of people. After this point there can be varying reasons for the day-to-day rising and falling of the approval rating. (Robert Kent, 120) In some instances a presidents rating can climb when the nation has been confronted with a foreign event that involves America and possibly a crisis for the American people. This idea is referred to as the rally round the flag effect. Robert Erikson and Kent Tedin write in American Public Opinion (121) this effect is likely to occur due to the desire of the American people to feel united behind a leader. One of the most accurate examples of this would be the attitude of the American people after the attacks that took place on 9/11 and the subsequent skyrocketing in the approval ratings for President George W. Bush. Upon deeper evaluation of this occurrence: when there is more of a relative calming of the people and the effects of war, both financially as well as the casualties incurred, the approval ratings are then subject to drop, one could say when â€Å"reality† sets in. (Rosalee Zoe, 111) The final source for the possible explanations behind drastic increases and decreases in a presidential approval rating is the state of the economy. An economy that is poorly performing will likely result in low approval ratings for the President and a prosperous economy to increase the approval rating. According to Kevin Hoover in his article â€Å"Phillips Curve†, during a low economic point there will be higher rates of unemployment and inflation. These two factors can have a substantial and negative impact on an individual’s livelihood. President Obama was elected during a time of economic strife due to many factors including a housing market crash as well as the weighing cost of the â€Å"War on Terror†. Even though Obama was not in the Presidential office during the onset of the war, nor was he to blame for the inevitable housing market crash, his approval rating suffered due to the onset of these events aftereffects. Bibliography Robert S. Erikson and Kent L. Tedin, American Public Opinion, New Jersey: Pearson Education, Inc., 2011 Rosalee A. Clawson and Zoe M. Oxley, Public Opinion: Democratic Ideals, Democratic Practice. Washington D.C., 2013 The University of Texas at Austin. â€Å"Biased Sampling and Extrapolation.† Last modified August 28, 2012. https://www.ma.utexas.edu/users/mks/statmistakes/biasedsampling.html Pelin Kesebir, Erik Phillips, Jackie Anson, Tom Pyszczynski, Matt Motyl, â€Å"Ideological Consistency across the Political Spectrum: Liberals are More Consistent but Conservatives Become More Consistent When Coping with Existential Threat† (February 11, 2013). http://ssrn.com/abstract=2215306 John Sides, â€Å"Why Most Conservatives are Secretly Liberals,† The Washington Post, March 6, 2014. http://www.washingtonpost.com/blogs/monkey-cage/wp/2014/03/06/why-most-conservatives-are-secretly-liberals/ Gallup-a. â€Å"Conservatives Remain the Largest Ideological Group in U.S.† Last modified January 12, 2012. http://www.gallup.com/poll/152021/conservatives-remain-largest-ideological-group.aspx Gallup-b. â€Å"Democrats Racially Diverse; Republicans Mostly White† Last modified February 8, 2013 http://www.gallup.com/poll/160373/democrats-racially-diverse-republicans-mostly-white.aspx US History. â€Å"American Political Attitudes and Participation: What Factors Shape Political Attitudes?† Last modified January, 2013. http://www.ushistory.org/gov/4b.asp Christopher Ellis and James A. Stimson, â€Å"Pathways to Ideology in American Politics: the Operational-Symbolic â€Å"Paradox† Revisited† http://www.unc.edu/~jstimson/Working_Papers_files/Pathways.pdf Harold D. Clarke, David Sanders, Marianne C. Stewart and Paul Whitely, â€Å"The Dynamics of Party Identification,† in Political Choice in Britain, edited by Harold D. Clarke (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2004), 185-186. https://www.essex.ac.uk/bes/bookfiles/Sanders-ch06.pdf Franklin Marshall College. â€Å"The First Political Poll.† Last modified June 18, 2002. http://www.fandm.edu/politics/politically-uncorrected-column/2002-politically-uncorrected/the-first-political-poll WK, Ph.D. Candidate, â€Å"The Role of Salience on the Relationship between Public Policy and Public Opinion† (Paper prepared for DC AAPOR Student Paper Competition, December 12, 2008) http://www.dc-aapor.org/documents/spc08wk.pdf

The Sex Selective Abortions In India

The Sex Selective Abortions In India The practice of terminating pregnancy based on the predicted sex of the baby is called Sex Selective abortion. Practice of sex selective abortion is very common is India, China, Pakistan and some other countries as well. The most common reason for the performing this act is to have male child instead of female one where their cultural norms value male child more over female child. This is about abortion, of course but its also a much larger problem: the worth of a womans life. In a culture where sons inherit properties and they carry on family name but daughters dont, more ever girls are more vulnerable to infanticide, abuse and neglect. (CHLOE, 2011). This paper presents how ethical is the abortions that are sex selective and what are the steps taken to prevent such practices. This will also focus on the beliefs of people of India. Background The incidents of female fetuses abortions are recent phenomenon due to the change and development in the medical technologies and diagnosis processes. But their roots can be traced to the female infanticide. The British rulers in India noted their experiences into their diaries during their travel to India. In 1835, one of the British officials James Thompson, while speaking to the landowners of Utter Pradesh, addressed one of them to be a son-in law of other. That comment created a sarcastic laugh among the farmers. When asked for their laughs, they said that he could not be son-in-law as there were no daughters in village. Thompson added that it was considered to be a most serious calamity to have a female child. And female children were seldom allowed to live. (Miller, 1983) Most abortions are done because of unplanned pregnancy or having a child causes danger or crisis to woman. Therapeutic Abortions Therapeutic abortions result from a medical reason where giving birth to a child may endanger womans health and life. Selective Abortions Selective abortion are those small fraction of abortion that occur in the cases where particular fetus is perceived as having undesirable characteristics. There are few reasons why the selective abortion is practiced. The unborn child is a girl, and parents due to cultural or other reasons, want a boy. When the fetus is defective. The pregnancy is intended to give birth to a child with specific genetic properties, and fetus doesnt have them. (Selective abortion) According to the study published in journal The Lancet, the number of the abortions due to reason of the sex of child has been increasing in last few years and the increase in numbers are alarming. The researchers state that there have been 4 to 5 million sex selective abortion performed during last three decades and the problem is still worsening. (CHLOE, 2011) From 2001 census of India, its very clear that there has been an unusual high sex ratio for the young children that have sparked the concern about the use of sex-selective abortions to satisfy parental preferences of sons. According to National Family Health Survey, also known as NFHS-2 , sex ration of male to female child is abnormally high that is 107-121 males per 100 females in 16 of Indias 26 states. There has been an extensive use of ultrasound technology and amniocentesis during pregnancy, particularly in Gujarat, Haryana and Punjab. The study also showed the masculine SRBs and worsening or persistent female mortality disadvantage despite overall mortality decline, the reasons behind that are female child neglect and the wide spread use of female infanticide in above mentioned and other places in India (Rajan, 1999). In a study conducted, the researchers stated that after firstborn girl, selective abortions of girls have been increased in India. And most of the population of I ndia lives in the states where selective abortions of girl child are common. (Prbhat Jha, 2011) The future mother and fathers families attend the sex-selection testing procedures and many a times the abortion is done against the will of the mother. The government has shown red eyes to those families pressurizing the expecting mother to undergo abortion. (Quinn, 2012) fig.1.jpg (Natrajan, 1972) Ethical views on Abortions and Sex-selective abortions As Rosalind Hursthouse states, any action is considered right given certain circumstances, from a virtual ethical perspective if and only if it is what the moral agent would do in same kind of circumstances. Here we will consider the case of pregnancy, when considering that when the ones decision to abort of not is called a right action when compared to its alternatives actions? (Caouette, 2012) A difficult case for the defenders emerges when there is a case of abortion for the removal of unwanted fetus because the fetus is of unwanted gender: Sex selective abortion. Sex selective abortion has always meant to be the elimination of female fetuses. In some countries it is not limited to fetuses, it also extends to infanticide. Abortion means killing a person, Warren states for instance, is no more serious than killing a guppy then abortion of human because of sex differences would be permissible. Many defenders would feel uncomfortable by such a conclusion. Many thinkers hold that abortion in general is morally problematic. However some arguments against sex-selective abortions can be understood based on the only assumption that human fetus is not a person with rights, but this assumption is related to abortion in the general only not to sex-selective abortion. (Kaczor, 2011) As here we are talking about India, we would focus more on the issues in context to India. Even though India has been worshipping Goddesses since long, some of the expectant mothers from India have been pressured by family and culture that privilege males into aborting their female fetuses. The government is becoming very strict now; new law makes the entire family to have a jail for at least 7 years, if the reason is found to be the female gender of fetus for the abortion. (Quinn, 2012) There has been always a role of the clinician to get these all deed done. So government has also decided to fine the clinicians involved in the cases of abortion due to gender discrimination. In some less-developed part of India, a daughter is seen as a financial burden to the family members in future. The reason behind this is considered to be the culture of giving dowries at the time of marriage of the daughters. The author adds that, there are ethical questions regarding the abortions of female fetuses. The number of men in India outnumbers the number of women by 40 million. Indian government wants the women population to grow but on the other hand it is restricting the womans reproductive rights of allowing her what she wants to do with her body. (Quinn, 2012) Moral and Ethical principles According to Mettanando Bhikkhu professor at Oxford and Harvard university, there are five fundamental questions that divide the thinking, moral principles and ethics to individuals. They are: Who am I? What is this world? Is there any afterlife? What is the meaning of my life? Why this has to happen to me? According to the answers one give o above mentioned fundamental questions, the people can be characterized as either from a modern society or from a traditional society. The modern society believes scientifically and the traditional one has the religious views. Abortion is considered as a eternal controversy. There have been two different views from the moral principles of the different groups. Pro-life: The human life is very sacred. Abortion is considered morally wrong and should be criminalized as it is equal to murder. Pro-choice: this group thinks that woman has right to terminate the pregnancy regardless of the reason for that. (Bhikkhu) Whatever the specific reason for the abortion, most feminists believe that the women concerned are in the best position to judge whether the abortion is an appropriate response to the pregnancy or not. Generally the woman never wants abortion that is influenced by the sex of fetus. The women should get entire control on their reproductive lives and be free from male dominance or family dominance. (Dickens, 2002). Religious views: Hinduism: If we talk about life according to Hindu scriptures, it is basically a dualistic model consisting of atam (spirit) and prakriti (matter). According to carak samhita, a Hindu medical text, at the time of conception only the soul is already joined. Though there are different opinions regarding ensoulments in Hindu scripture. According to the Garbh Samhita, the encoulments take place in the seventh month of pregnancy. Though there are some different opinions regarding the consciousness in to the womb. Vishnu puran, a famous hindu scripture, describes the consciousness in the womb. (Moad, 2004) The practice of abortion is negatively described in ancient Hindu scriptures, The Vedas. In the text Rg Samhit, possibly originating before 1200BC, Lord Vishnu is the protector of the child re-birth, implying that fetus actually deserved even divine reverence. While Atharva Veda expresses following plea in regard to those who perform abortion: With what bonds the overslaughed one is bound apart, applied and tied up on each limb let them be released, for they are releasers; wipe off difficulties, O Pushan, on the embryo slayer. VI-112.3 Enter thou after the beams, the smokes, O evil; go unto the mists or also the fogs; disappear along those foams of the rivers: wipe off difficulties, O Pushan, on the embryo slayer.VI-113.2 (Moad, 2004) Female is seen as Goddess in Hinduism and aborting fetus because of the gender is considered a biggest sin. Evidently, embryo slayer is seen as a killer and a suitable candidate to bear sufferings and sins of the rest of vedic community. In another Hindu scripture Visnudharmasutra, one who performs abortion is similar to attempting the worst sin in Hindu society, killing a Brahmin. (Moad, 2004) Christian: Christian and Jewish groups oppose sex-selection abortion very strongly. While the prolife-movements is pushing too hard these days leading to vote on the bill to ban the sex-selection abortions, some Christian churches remained silent on the measure and took positions opposite to it. The church belonged groups Methodist Federation for social Action, justice and witness Ministries of the United Church of Christ and Presbyterian Voices for Justice voiced their opposition to the sex-selection abortion ban. They are also supported by a number of groups including: Jewish Reconstructionist Federation, National Council of Jewish Women, and Union for Reform Judaism, Hadassah, Women of Reform Judaism, .and the Womens League for Conservative Judaism. (Ertelt, 2012) The Institute on Religion and Democracy asks why so many churches are not taking any stand to oppose the act of sex-selective abortions. The Institute on Religion and Democracy voted and strongly condemned sex-selective abortion as as a particularly lamentable and violent expression of sexism. Churches should be among first to stand and oppose the act of sex-selective abortions said IRD President Mark Tolley. Most of the church groups are concerned about issues like social justice and global problems that range from lack of access to drinking water to plight of those persons victimized by sex trafficking, Yet the gender-selective abortion should be considered as global problem only, Mark added. (Ertelt, 2012). Buddhism: It is very clear from the sources that sex-selective abortions have been disapproved by Buddhism as well. Superficially, situation seems not unlike the Roman Catholism, where the abortion though disapproved in the strongest terms by the churches drawing a canonical tradition. The most fundamental is consciousness (vi~n~naa.na), the fifth. More ever to specify the consciousness the criteria of moral status is nearly impossible to isolate (Barnhart, 1997). Sex-selective abortion practice in India As there has been always a social and Indian cultural demand to have male child, there was high curiosity among the expecting parents to know the gender of fetus. So, sex determination itself became a business for the clinicians. Sex determination became big business in India after it was introduced into 1970s. The billboards were stating that, Invest Rs.500 now and save Rs.50000 later. These kinds of advertisements were encouraging the expecting parents and save future dowry (Kusum, 1993). Posters in the train station promoted the sex-determination together with an abortion for just Rs.70. Certain clinicians used to distribute the flyers advertising their services. (Jeffery, 1984) However not all the clinicians are personally happy by doing these, sex determinations and abortions. (Professional obligations vs Personal ethics) Curlin_2009_physicians_obligations.png Courtesy: (Professional obligations vs Personal ethics) Social Context: To understand the practice of sex-selective abortion in India, one has to thoroughly understand the roots of cultural norms and basis of son preference in India. The concept of Son Mania in India is multi-faceted and deeply embedded in Indian culture (Ramanamma, 1980). In the ancient India text Athrva Veda, there are mantras written to change the sex of fetus from female to girl. A sons birth considered to be a sunrise in the abode of god and to have a son was as essential as to have food once a day, where as daughters birth was considered a cause for greatest sadness and disappointment (Ramanamma, 1980). Indian society is patrilocal, patriarchal, and patrilineal. The sons are supposed to carry family name. Sons are also charged with the duty and task to support their parents in old-age. Whereas on other hand daughters get married and become part of husbands family, they dont make any further contribution to birth parents. There is a saying in India that, bringing up a daughter is like watering to neighbors plant. (Jeffery, 1984). Since most reasons for the preference for sons are economically based, it is really very ironic to find that the extreme level of sex-ratio that is more boys to girls are found into the higher casts who tend to have wealth (Miller, 1981). Since come into the practice, the physicians always have been a strong support to those parents who want the sex-selective abortion done. This argument also involves the right to let the families make their personal decision. If we think a case of a woman having two or three daughters and still she deliver a girl child then her life will become difficult and she will have too many daughters. One of the famous Bombay gynecologists state that, How can you deny the mother to have a son instead of daughter? Who are we to take away her right to decide that she should have a daughter or son? It is better to get rid of the unwanted child than to suffer the whole life (Kusum, 1993). Although practitioners might have interests in this because of financial interest, its considerable that their views will be their interest oriented rather than in the interest of overall ethical situation. Governments Response Since the problem of male to female ratio is worsening, India has shown the history of activism and policy attention to Female -selective abortions. It started all the way in 1988 from the state of Maharashtra. Maharashtra banned the use of amniocentesis for the purpose of sex-determination. Fines and prison were made mandatory for those who administer the test as well as woman and her family undergoing the test. Within the same year, there were doubts raised regarding effectiveness of the ban on the sex-determination, because the private sector remained unregulated. The lack of government action was cited by a group of activist in Mumbai, which advertised the sex-determination and sex preselection. (Miller, Female-Selective Abortion in Asia: Patterns, Policies, and Debates, 2001) The Indian government has opposed the practice of female infanticide and the practices of sex-selective abortions, but has been very slow and ineffectual in applying the law strictly around the country. The dowry prohibition act was passed by Indian government in 1961 itself approximately a decade ago the sex-determination techniques were introduced in India. Despite its revision in 1983 and 1985, this law has been poor in implementation (Bumiller, 1990). Maharashtra state provided the first policy model to take serious steps against these kind of practices. (Miller, Female-Selective Abortion in Asia: Patterns, Policies, and Debates, 2001) The salient features of Maharashtra Regulation of Prenatal Diagnostic Techniques Act are as follows (Kusum, 1993): Pre-natal diagnosis is permitted only to detect any kind of fetus abnormalities that includes sex-linked genetic diseases. The test can only be undertaken by a high risk pregnant woman who should meet one or more of the following criteria: Age over 35 years History of 2 or more abortions or miscarriage History to the exposure to any hazardous substances Hereditary genetic disorder The uses of all kind of prenatal diagnosis techniques are banned for the purpose of determination of sex of fetus. Three authorities were made to operate all these policies, State Appropriate Authority, State Vigilance Committee, and Local Vigilance Committees. The woman who experienced two or more therapeutic abortions in past technically becomes eligible under this act. Secondly, while determining the ex-linked genetic disorder the can theoretically reveal the sex of fetus to the physician. So needless to say, corruption, increased in illegal practices made the practice of sex-determination unabated. (Kusum, 1993) Conclusion Sex-selective abortion should be best called Female-selective abortions. India is a very large democracy. The laws in country are very difficult to apply thoroughly because of the corruption and such other issues in Indian government. The clinicians, most of them never apply their own ethical and moral principles to such cases, everyone is busy collecting wealth. Morally my own beliefs, my faith in my religion, my nation never allow me to attempt such sin. A son and a daughter should be considered equal. We are living in 21st century, where there is nothing that a woman cannot do and a man can do. Personally I believe that the sex-determination should not be banned but there should be awareness among the expecting parents about the importance of life. The woman should be made think that what if her mother had aborted her? Everyone has got right to live, to take lives, is not in our hands. There is no country in the world that has placed sex-selective abortion high on its policy agenda, though the United Nations included pre natal sex selection in its Program of Action in Cairo Conference on Population and development in 1994 (Miller, Female-Selective Abortion in Asia: Patterns, Policies, and Debates, 2001) We should respect human rights as well. India is a developing nation and it should be thought that women are an intact part of Indian workforce. To conclude with, I strongly take my position against the use of sex-determination and the practice of sex-selective abortion around the globe, we all will have to re-think and develop a inner sense of equality and freedom.